On the Reduction of the Arts to Theology: Integrating Faith and Learning

Donald V. Patten, M.Div.
Instructor of Interdisciplinary Studies
Missouri Baptist University

There are many issues facing American evangelical scholars today. One of the more pervasive topics is anti-intellectualism, a disposition that tends to downplay the role of learning in favor of experiential faith. This false dichotomy makes the distinction between the life of the mind and the life of faith. The two seldom relate and in some way have opposing agendas. The thought that faith alongside learning could benefit the believer has, for the most part, left modern evangelical discussions. Lending to the problem is the fact that evangelical thinkers are more prone to ignore the subject, opting either to deny its existence or do nothing about it. Within the past decade, relatively few works have addressed anti-intellectualism much less offer plausible solutions on how to combat its presence within evangelical circles. A notable exception is Os Guinness's Fit Bodies, Fat Minds: Why Evangelicals Don't Think and What to Do About It? Guinness's work provides an excellent survey of the historical roots that aided the rise of American anti-intellectualism.[1] He envisions the problem to be greater than a simple separation of learning from faith. It is a direct violation of the Old Testament words that Jesus quotes in Matthew 22: 37, "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind" (Ryrie). To me, this is the heart of the issue regarding anti-intellectualism and its presence in the life of a believer. Jesus clearly expresses the belief that His followers need a coherent unity of mind and body in order to fully express love for and to God. It is not just faithful expressions of heartfelt service to God. It is an active engagement of the mind in addition to such expressions of the soul. In light of modern anti-intellectualism, as well as its prevalence within evangelicalism, it is necessary once again to attempt bridging the gap that separates the heart from the mind if for no other reason than obeying the command of Christ.

Curiously, the contemporary issue of anti-intellectualism does not reflect the broad historical experience of Christianity. This is especially true for the medieval period of church history leading up to the thirteenth century. Although the historical, cultural, and theological settings are different, the question regarding the integration of faith and learning is similar. Theologians engaged in philosophic and academic pursuits that encouraged the life of the mind to coexist with a life of faith. Views differed from one theologian to another, but the principle of integration became a significant topic of discussion because it was seen to operate on two levels, both the human and the divine. In other words, the medieval mind saw human activities, in a theological and mundane sense, as issuing forth from God through an intricate process of illumination, a process that would one day culminate in a returning back to Him.[2] To speak of faith apart from intellect would not have occurred to most medieval theologians, and if it did then the flaws of such an approach would quickly be highlighted. As they discussed the topic, faith and learning were synonymous ideas in that both originate in the human person by the will of God. If anything, theologians discussed ways in which integration of the two could be possible, not how they could be separated. There were a number of works produced addressing the key principles of a faith/intellect union. One important text on this unity is Bonaventure of Bagnoregio's On the Reduction of the Arts to Theology (De Reductione).[3] This work has relevance for today's evangelical in that it offers a ready solution to the difficult subject of integrating faith and learning. I propose that, by reading and implementing some of the thoughts of Bonaventure, evangelicals can learn much about the process of integration and the way it intertwines with all of life.

Bonaventure of Bagnoregio (1217-1274), Minister General of the Franciscan Order from 1257-1273, wrote De reductione around 1270.[4] This short work offers a glimpse into the mind of a medieval theologian who sought to integrate a life of learning with a life of faith. Although there is discussion on the date of the work, most believe it was composed at the end of his life. Thus, Bonaventure drew upon a lifetime of experience. His conclusion is that a spiritual life needs to be connected to an intellectual life simply because all of creation comes from God, the Father of all light. Yet, the connection is more than necessity. It is demanded on the basis of our humanity and the manner in which God created us. Theology and faith are integral to all disciplines in life whether they are spiritual or menial.

This article will explore Bonaventure's understanding on how a believer can be both intellectual and spiritual at the same time. Through several illustrations from the text of De reductione, I will unfold important considerations on how faith and learning complete the human person. As Bonaventure unites the mind and spirit into the plan of God for humanity, so too must we. Bonaventure's thoughts encourage believers to embrace any human endeavor with the conscious, willful understanding that such activity originates from God. Thus, when describing faith and learning, Bonaventure does not separate them into different disciplines. He maintains that the human person cannot have learning without some semblance of faith. Bonaventure's text, although written over seven hundred years ago, helps shed light on the problem contemporary evangelicals face when discussing anti-intellectualism. Like Bonaventure, today's evangelical must see a necessary integration between faith and learning.

Historical Considerations

De reductione is a thoughtful response to several historical events occurring during Bonaventure's day. Perhaps the most important of these events was the rise of the university and its impact upon the world in general and theology in particular. During the twelfth century, universities, especially in Paris, began to see an influx of students who desired training in theology and the natural sciences.[5] Gone were the days when the source of such instruction occurred within the cloistered confines of a monastic community. Students naturally gravitated towards urban centers where prominent masters of the sciences solicited both their money and time.[6] A consequence of this move was that theology, once seen as the "queen of the sciences," began to lose its appeal. Various methodologies surfaced offering separate views on man's relationship to the world. In this way, philosophy and human wisdom took the forefront in urban education. The discussions of the university professors and students addressed, in part, the fruit of human efforts and wisdom while leaving theology in the shadows. This was the climate that confronted Bonaventure as he assumed teaching responsibilities in Paris.[7] The students he taught began to adopt reasoning about life that ignored the role of Scripture and theology. To Bonaventure, this was simply unacceptable and faulty for many theological reasons that are espoused in De reductione. Faith could in no way be divorced from any science regardless of its pursuits. The reason was simply that theology is the umbrella under which all human sciences operate and find their existence. Bonaventure believed that natural sciences were "lights," but lesser in significance than supernatural, or theological, revelation. In other words, mechanical arts, drama, the senses, reason, and even wisdom are lesser lights than those of faith and spirituality. It is necessary to integrate faith and learning because there is a finite amount of understanding one can receive from natural sciences alone. By itself, natural science is deficient and in need of fuller light, a light that can only be supplied through theology and faith. Bonaventure attacks the premise that theological science is an enterprise in and of itself, completely separated from all other human sciences. Theology is not one department of knowledge amongst many. To say this is to deny the very premise for which God created humanity and creation. Bonaventure, in clear and precise words, offers a concise treatment of the sciences in De reductione that culminates in the theological discipline.

Bonaventure's Methodology in De reductione

One of the more intriguing details concerning Bonaventure's understanding of faith and learning is his conviction that both aspects of the human person are discussed in Scripture. His approach to understanding the text of the Bible provides insight into his understanding of the connection between faith and learning. For Bonaventure, one must approach Scripture systematically and literally. This approach was his personal criteria for interpreting Scripture and it was the methodology he employed in De reductione. This is important because, as evangelicals, we understand the spiritual life and interpretation of biblical passages in similar ways. If the believer is not guided in some way by the text of Scripture, what use is his or her spirituality? Bonaventure's understanding of the interconnectedness of faith and learning hinges upon one verse of Scripture, James 1:17.[8] He appeals to this passage during the introduction and unpacks it throughout the treatise. James calls God the "Father of lights" and, as light, is the source of all illumination and gifts. In this sense, there is nothing that the human person possesses that is not first given by God. These gifts include, but are not limited to, all forms of knowledge, wisdom and faith. Creation, then, is an example of the generosity of the Father of lights, and it becomes the task of the human person to know and learn about creation in all its complexity in order to begin comprehending God's communion and love for His creation.

Bonaventure asserts that the life experiences of the human person relate to both faith and learning through God's provision of natural and supernatural light. In this context, natural light refers to basic human functions possessed by all members of the human race such as the ability to reason. At some point, if God so chooses, supernatural light enters into human experience.[9] This light, made concrete through faith, unites with natural light to form the complete person. Once the two are joined, human wisdom and supernatural grace move towards knowledge of God in Christ, a knowledge that expresses itself ultimately in love.[10] This is the heart of Bonaventure's understanding of reductio, to draw the soul back to God through a unity of natural and supernatural light. Thus, this integration of faith and learning expresses completely God's creative will for humankind. Knowledge is not beneficial if left to its own pursuit. This is what Bonaventure feared while in Paris. His contemporaries were trying to divorce theology from other disciplines. Bonaventure saw this as an attempt to free knowledge from the constraints of faith, which would be disastrous to the human person. Faith must interact in some way with learning; otherwise, it is meaningless. True light that comes from the Father includes a melding of the two. Therefore, as humanity attempts to organize and understand the world through various activities of the mind, always in the background looms theology and faith.

How then does faith relate to the mind and the various forms of knowledge and learning present within humanity? Simply stated, the answer to this question is the project of De reductione: to explain the organic and spiritual unity of all forms of human knowledge as given by the "Father of lights." Bonaventure offers up four "lights" inherent to all men which God supplied at the moment of creation. These lights move in intensity from lesser qualities to greater ones. Specifically, they are exterior, inferior, interior, and superior lights.[11] Each light reveals Bonaventure's systematic approach to relating all human arts to the realm of theology. It moves beyond the scope of this article to discuss each light in depth. What I propose is a brief look at the main points under each section concluding with several comments on how Bonaventure's insights can bring a new understanding to the contemporary issue of anti-intellectualism.

The "Lights" of De reductione

One thing is clear about Bonaventure's discussion of the four lights: they comprise the totality of the human person and suggest that God controls every aspect of them. This includes what Bonaventure deems "exterior light." In the progression of human knowledge, the external light of nature is lowest, or basic, being "servile and of a lower nature than philosophical knowledge" (De reductione 37). That is not to say it is unimportant to human makeup or to knowledge. Without the external, mechanical uses of creation humanity could not function. And, without the inborn ability to learn about and implement such uses, humankind would be lost and eventually cease to exist. Bonaventure begins with exterior light because it works to bring understanding of the outside world to the human person.

There are seven mechanical arts illustrated in De reductione that constitute exterior lights.[12] In one way or another they enable humanity to interact with and experience creation on two levels, either for a purely utilitarian purpose or for a purely pleasurable one. Looking more closely at Bonaventure's understanding of illumination, he asserts that exterior light provides illumination on how, in a fallen world, humankind can acquire those things that will help towards survival. The understanding of agriculture, for example, enables humanity to supply and make provision for daily physical needs so that the body might function properly. As God offers light, humankind in turn must labor to comprehend the light and make proper use of it. What is interesting about Bonaventure's synopsis of mechanical arts is that they entail a good summary of medieval life. He mentions people from every social strata starting with peasants and working steady to merchants, guild workers, and ending with nobility. God does not play favorites nor does He offer illumination to only a small segment of humanity. Everyone is under the auspices of natural light. Although exterior light is not the same as superior light, it nonetheless must be part of what it means to be human and, as such, is vital to what God intended by illuminating the mind and spirit.

Bonaventure's discussion of "inferior light" elucidates what it means to be created into a material world. In order to survive, the human person must obtain knowledge, or light, of the physical world. As the Father of lights, God provides the corporeal body with sense perception. Working within a medieval understanding of earthly elements, Bonaventure describes four substances and one "form" that directly relates to inferior light.[13] The substances are sound, touch, taste and smell. Light is the one "form" that is not specifically an element. Each element corresponds to an attribute in the human person (De reductione 39-41).[14] The fact that God created mankind with the innate ability to not only function but also prosper in the world is one proof that the human person is somehow intimately connected to the world. Bonaventure places the substance of light over and above all other elements for several reasons, not the least of which is the fact that God created the world first with light before creating other substances. Since natural light was the first aspect of creation to issue forth from the will and power of God, it must in some way govern all areas of human existence and sense perception. Natural light allows humankind to walk without stumbling, construct objects of art and cultivate land for food. It is in this way that God gave priority to natural light over the earthly elements.

Up to this point in De reductione, Bonaventure's discussion of light only explains how God created natural light so that the mechanical arts can be used properly. As he moves into the third light, or "interior light," he begins to get more philosophical. At the University of Paris, in particular, philosophy began to receive large amounts of interest both from students and teachers alike. If there was any area of university life that attempted to separate from theology, it was philosophy. Bonaventure describes philosophy as a science that offers guidance to the human person so that he/she can make logical connections with knowable truth (De reductione 43). He asserts that human knowledge initiates from God and will one day rest with Him. In other words, as knowledge issues forth from the creative powers of God to humanity, it finds its fulfillment ultimately with God. There is no aspect of human knowledge that did not come directly from God; therefore, to claim that any part of human life is divorced from God is to fail to understand the very premise upon which human knowledge originated.[15] What remains in this section of De reductione is a detailed analysis of human reason including Bonaventure's many categories of philosophic thought.

The final and most important light God offers to humanity is what Bonaventure calls "superior light." This light concerns God's plan for creation in that it focuses directly upon salvation. At this level, all aspects of human knowledge previously discussed in De reductione prove incapable of comprehending God's plan of salvation. This is because the material world, upon creation, never was intended to impart knowledge for salvation. Thus, the mechanical arts, sense perception and philosophic reason are deficient if left alone. What is needed is revelation, or a divinely authorized Word from God explaining the way of salvation, and Bonaventure explicitly states that this Word is Scripture.[16] And it is not just Scripture as an abstract idea; it is a literal[17] understanding of God's Word whereby He communicates, through the Spirit and through inspiration, all knowledge.[18] Philosophy cannot attain this, human effort cannon attain this, nor can a natural awareness of worldly things attain this. It requires an entrance of the divine into daily life. In particular, Bonaventure claims that Scripture reveals the final destiny of humanity in three areas, "the eternal generation and incarnation of Christ, the pattern of human life, and the union of the soul with God" (De reductione 43). Interestingly, he continues to express his point by claiming that philosophers of the past could not aid in understanding these three areas. Only theologians such as Augustine of Hippo, Gregory the Great, Pseudo Dionysius, Anselm of Canterbury, Bernard of Clairvaux, Richard of St. Victor and Hugh of St. Victor can offer insight into Scripture. In a simple way, Bonaventure traces interpretive history from Augustine of the fifth century to Hugh of St. Victor in the twelfth century. It is theology that provides the necessary lens whereby humanity learns of their place and meaning in life. To say that theology must now be relegated to a separate discipline in education neglects this basic truth. Nothing can provide for the spiritual needs of mankind like the study of Scripture as exhibited in theology.

Concluding Remarks

The question remains, how can Bonaventure help modern evangelicals understand the importance of an integrated life of faith and learning? Simply stated, he helps provide reasonable biblical and philosophical support that theology is the rubric under which all life activities enjoy their existence. De reductione espouses the belief that there is no human enterprise devoid of God's influence. Since God gives illumination, the kind that pertains to physical and spiritual life, then it follows that He desired an integrated life of learning and faith. Illumination, according to Bonaventure, comes in many forms and comes directly from the Father of lights. To separate a life of learning from a life of faith is to miss the point concerning God's illuminating process. God's creative purpose was for both human elements to coincide in a holistic manner; and Bonaventure upheld a holistic view of life, one that De reductione explains. The mistake would be not to see the purpose behind De reductione. Bonaventure's purpose, although somewhat simple, was quite profound. The human person cannot be divided into opposing categories, one centering upon learning and the other centering upon the spiritual disciplines. They work in harmony. Bonaventure's life is an example of this accord. The fact that Bonaventure was a university professor and master of theology shows the value he attached to the life of the mind. The fact that he incorporated a biblical understanding of the integration between faith and learning shows the value he attached to the life of faith.

No one, at least no one genuinely investigating Bonaventure's theology, would question that the intent of De reductione was, in part, to repudiate medieval professors claiming that theology, and thus a life of faith, was a unique, individual and separate science. Such a concept was foreign to all that Bonaventure held true about God and His plan for the human person. The reason is that Bonaventure believed theology to be the driving force of human existence.[19] If it is the culmination of life on earth, then it must be the operative element in all activities whether scientific or faith-related.

If theology is the driving force of human existence, then the message of De reductione speaks to evangelicals today who grapple with the issue of the integration between faith and learning. The focus of numerous evangelical groups is to emphasize a life of faith over and above a life of learning, and this misses the point of human existence. All aspects of creation are illuminations from God, the Father of lights, including natural sciences (learning) and biblical understanding (faith).[20] They fall into different uses but are nonetheless equally important to physical life on earth and spiritual life in the body of Christ. Perhaps this is the reason why Jesus, in Matthew 22:37, stated that the heart, mind and soul formed a complete person, one living in union with God and, thus, loving God with their whole being. Is it possible to fully enjoy and love God exercising only one or two of the criteria Jesus lists in Matthew 22? If we take Jesus seriously and maintain that the text of Scripture is to be taken seriously, then the answer to this question is uncomplicated. God desires love from the whole person, not just one area. However, this is precisely the dichotomy evangelical anti-intellectualism creates, a separation between the heart and the mind.

What I suggest is that evangelicals stop for a minute and contemplate the message of De reductione. Bonaventure's well-defined, organized and systematic treatment of God's various forms of illumination shows the interconnectedness, a necessary interconnectedness, between a life of faith and a life of learning. Fully understanding and incorporating these ideas into the body of Christ at the universal and local levels can be nothing other than spirit renewing and life changing. Even more, such a revolutionary approach to evangelical life can lead to an enriched, spirit-filled life of service because we will be following the words of our Master, the Lord Jesus Christ, in loving God with all our heart, all our soul and all our mind.

Endnotes

1 It moves beyond the scope of this article to offer a detailed analysis of Guinness's book. He does, however, note that modern anti-intellectualism took both time and energy to develop. See also Mark Noll, The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994).

2 The Latin term for this process is reductio, which literally means "to lead back." The mistake would be to assume that medieval theologians advanced the idea of universalism through their discussions on reductio. Reductio does not imply universal salvation. It does imply that God has a plan and will for the human person that involves both the mind and spirit.

3 Cf. Saint Bonaventure, On the Reduction of the Arts to Theology, trans. Zachary Hayes (St. Bonaventure, NY: Franciscan Institute, 1996). Hereafter, the text will be abbreviated De reductione.

4 For a brief discussion on dating De reductione, see Bonaventure, On the Reduction of the Arts to Theology, 3. Most scholars consider the introduction and translation of this work to be one of the best available. Hayes offers a short yet succinct presentation of the occasion and message behind Bonaventure's text. See also J. Bougerol, Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure (Paterson, NJ: St. Anthony Guild Press, 1961), 163.

5 Interestingly, Bonaventure spent several years in Paris where he pursued writing and teaching. Paris was the scene for the composition of the text The Disputed Questions on the Mystery of the Trinity, trans. Zachary Hayes (St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute, 1979). Bonaventure wrote Disputed Questions at the same time Thomas Aquinas, who was also living in Paris, wrote concerning the Trinity in Summa Theologica (Allen, TX: Thomas More Publishing, 1977), 7-43. In addition to his comments on De Reductione, Bougerol's Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure spends most of a chapter on the content and interpretation of the Disputed Questions, 113-22. For more details on Bonaventure's time in Paris both as a student and master, see Regis J. Armstrong, J. A. Wayne Hellmann, and William Short, eds., "Introduction to The Legends and Sermons about Saint Francis," in Francis of Assisi: The Founder, volume 2 (New York: New City Press, 2000), 495-05. The author of this introduction provides a brief description of Bonaventure's early career in Paris. For a more developed analysis of Bonaventure's Parisian experience as well as specific details on his life, see Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, Bonaventure, trans. by Ewert Cousins, in The Classics of Western Spirituality (New York: Paulist Press, Inc., 1978), 2-48.

6 Peter Abelard (1079-1142) is a fitting example of such an instructor. He was famous in France for his ability to teach in areas of philosophy and theology. His reputation drew large crowds of students to his classes. Abelard described the circumstances surrounding his time in Paris in The Story of Abelard's Adversities, trans. by J. T. Muckle (Toronto, Can.: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1964).

7 Cf. Armstrong, et al., "Introduction to The Legends and Sermons about Saint Francis," 495-98.

8 "Every good thing bestowed and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights, with whom there is no variation, or shifting shadow" (Ryrie).

9 Bonaventure's understanding of "supernatural light" is saving grace. God does not give saving grace to every human person. It is part of the gifts God gives to humanity as the "Father of light."

10 It is evident that the Cistercian Reform of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries influenced Bonaventure's theology of love. The Cistercian Reform made significant contributions to "ordering love." Perhaps the best known of the Cistercian theologians was Bernard of Clairvaux who wrote numerous treatises on love and its influence on the soul of believers. For more on the Cistercian efforts to order love see Bernard of Clairvaux, On Loving God, trans. Emero Stiegman (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1995).

11 It is significant to note that Bonaventure refers to the Didascalicon: A Medieval Guide to the Arts, a work produced by Hugh of St. Victor in 1127. Cf. Hugh of St. Victor, Didascalicon, trans. Jerome Taylor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991). Hugh offers a more complete version of medieval arts than Bonaventure. What is important about this work is that he mentions four lights and describes their characteristics (pages 64-67). Bonaventure draws upon the Victorine tradition in developing the argument of De reductione.

12 Again, Bonaventure cites Hugh of St. Victor. Cf. Bonaventure, Reduction of the Arts, 37. He draws upon Hugh's catalogue of the seven mechanical arts: weaving, a metal worker, agriculture, hunting, navigation, medicine and the dramatic arts. Cf. Hugh of St. Victor, Didascalicon, 74.

13 The medieval understanding of the physical world included the four basic elements of earth, water, fire and wind (air).

14 Bonaventure describes light pertaining to sight, wind to hearing, vapors (or fire) to smelling, water to tasting and earth to touching. With each of these elements, Bonaventure draws further conclusions (41).

15 Bonaventure further categorizes philosophic knowledge into what he calls rational philosophy, moral philosophy and natural philosophy. Rational philosophy seeks to understand the truth behind ideas, moral philosophy seeks to understand the truth behind human endeavors and natural philosophy seeks to understand the truth behind substances. For a full explanation on these three forms of philosophic knowledge, see Bonaventure, 43, 45.

16 It is important to note that Bonaventure's understanding of revelation is tied intimately with saving grace. God provides the light of understanding Scripture, and with that light, provides the means to receive grace for salvation.

17 By "literal," Bonaventure sees Scripture as communicating God's literal Word for humanity. He envisions this as most medieval theologians did, namely, that the starting point for any investigation of the Bible begins with a normal understanding of the text. Once this is understood, then one can move into three other areas of interpretation: the allegorical, tropological and analogical understanding. Allegorical interpretation of Scripture does not mean a "spiritual" or "figurative" meaning attacked to the text. It means an understanding of Scripture that explains how one is to live a life of faith. Tropological applies to moral life, and analogical refers to the culmination of a believer's life and the reward that follows. For more on this four fold sense of interpreting Scriptures, see Augustine of Hippo, De doctrina Christiana, ed. and trans. R. P. H. Green (New York: Clarendon Press, 1995).

18 Bonaventure states, "Now the fourth light, which provides illumination with respect to saving truth, is the light of sacred Scripture. This light is called superior because it leads to higher things by revealing truths which transcend reason, and also because it is not acquired by human research, but comes down from the 'God of Lights' by inspiration" (43).

19 By "theology," I mean that Bonaventure saw illumination as a way to know of God and of His purpose for humanity. In this way, the study of theology is available due to God's pleasure. Not everyone can learn about God. That is why Bonaventure labels the study of theology as "superior light." Only grace allows for the human person to know anything about God.

20 Under "natural sciences," Bonaventure would include the exterior and inferior lights (the first two lights of illumination). Under "philosophical" or "theological sciences," Bonaventure would include interior and superior lights (the last two lights of illumination).

Works Cited

Abelard, Peter. The Story of Abelard's Adversities. Trans. J. T. Muckle. Toronto, Can.: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1964.

Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. Allen, TX: Thomas More Publishing, 1977.

Armstrong, Regis, J. A. Wayne Hellmann, and William Short, eds. "Introduction to The Legends and Sermons about Saint Francis." Francis of Assisi: The Founder. Volume 2. New York: New City Press, 2000. 495-524.

Augustine of Hippo. De doctrina Christiana. Edited and translated by R. P. H. Green. New York: Clarendon Press, 1995.

Bernard of Clairvaux. On Loving God. Trans. Emero Stiegman. Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1995.

Bonaventure of Bagnoregio. Bonaventure. The Classics of Western Spirituality series. Translated and edited by Ewert H. Cousins. New York: Paulist Press, Inc., 1978.
___. The Disputed Questions on the Mystery of the Trinity. Trans. Zachary Hayes. St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute, 1979.
___. On the Reduction of the Arts to Theology. Trans. Zachary Hayes. St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute, 1996.

Bougerol, J. Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure. Paterson, NJ: St. Anthony Guild Press, 1961.

Guinness, Os. Fit Bodies, Fat Minds: Why Evangelicals Don't Think and What to Do About It. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1994.

Hugh of St. Victor. Didascalicon: A Medieval Guide to the Arts. Trans. Jerome Taylor. New York: Columbia UP, 1991.

Noll, Mark. The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994.

Ryrie, Charles Caldwell. The Ryrie Study Bible. New American Standard Translation. Chicago: Moody Press, 1978.

DONALD V. PATTEN, Adjunct Professor of Theology at Saint Louis University and Instructor of Interdisciplinary Studies at Missouri Baptist University, holds a B.S. (Emmaus Bible College) and an M.Div. (Covenant Theological Seminary). He is completing his doctoral dissertation on biblical typology in the Vita S. Francisci, an early Franciscan hagiographical text, at Saint Louis University. He has contributed to the recent publication of volume 3 in Francis of Assisi: Early Documents and helped to compile the index to all three volumes in the series. His research objectives are to relate the rise of Franciscanism to the greater Protestant Reformation and to publish works on Franciscan spirituality.